John and Sal will be thrilled!I am truly delighted that so many of you have subscribed to Aromatherapy Today.  Do let me know what you think of the September issue and I shall pass on your comments or,  better still, why not tell them yourself at our Open Day on Sunday, 7th  November?I know that they are most anxious to provide what you want. Meanwhile another month of Charlie's Chat, as some would call it (Heaven forbid!).

Several, who visit the office (you are always welcome), ask how  Mungu, my Rhodesian Ridgeback, got his ridge.An excellent question, the answer to which I never really knew!Still, by now, you will know that you only have to ask and I shall endeavour to find out.It seems that, back in 1652 when the Cape of South Africa was first settled by white men, the newcomers found that  the local Hottentot tribes had their own semi-domesticated camp dog - small,  with prick ears and a curled tail, and a ridge ofhair on its back running  against the direction of the coat.This Hottentot dog randomly interbred with the settlers 'imported dogs of numerous breeds, producing many and varied types,  often with the tell-tale ridge which persisted through many generations.

However I think that Mungu's origins may be a little more recent.In  1875 the Reverend Charles Helm and his wife trekked up from Swellendam in the  Cape to Hope Fountain Mission, 10km from the centre of what is Bulawayo today, with a baby and their two ridged bitches Powder and Lorna.Among his friends, Charles Helm could count Lobengula the Matabele Chief, Cornelius van Rooyen the famous lion hunter and game capturer, and Cecil Rhodes.Because of his  friendship with van Rooyen, Helm was able to leave the dogs in his care when he  made his trips back to the south every few years.His two bitches interbred  with van Rooyen's mixed hunting pack, made up of many and varied breeds, and  this in time led to the development of the Ridgeback breed we know  today.
Marula.
A recent visitto Hope Fountain Mission by Linda Costa, to  whom I am indebted for the above history, revealed that the Hope Fountain Church  is shaded by a large marula tree, laden with fruit.Whilst researching Argan  Oil (Argania spinosa (L.) Skeels), Tim kindly unearthed for me a fascinating research report from Israel: New Crops as a Possible Solution for the Troubled  Israeli Export Market by Y. Mizrahi and A. Nerd.Amongst the new crops  discussed was marula.

Marula (Sclerocarya birrea (A. Rich.) Hochst.  subsp. caffra (Sond.) Kokwaro) is a member of the Anacardiaceae family, which includes amongst others cashew(Anacardium), mango (Mangifera), pistachio (Pistacia), sumachs (Rhus), and lacquer (Gluta, Rhus).By the way, it has always fascinated me how monkeys are immune to the toxins from the resin which seep out from the leaves of these species during rain, probably because the  alkali or antihistamine counteract the effect of the resin, and yet mango-eating and South East Asian lacquered (the sap of Gluta laccifera; or Burmese lacquer  Gluta usitata; and Chinese or Japanese lacquer Rhus verniciflua) articles can cause a reaction in sensitive humans.Any thoughts?Still, back to marula!

A large, dioecious, deciduous tree, which grows wild in southern Africa, the female trees bear plum-sized fruits with a thick yellow peel and a  translucent, white, highly aromatic sweet-sour fruit, which is eaten fresh, like a small mango, or used to prepare juices, jams, conserves, dry fruit rolls, and  alcoholic beverages.The seeds, which are eaten as a delicate nut, are highly appreciated by the local people and hence the name "the king's nut".The nut has high nutritive value and a high oil content (56%) with a very good dietetic ratio of saturated to unsaturated fatty acids (Weinert, I.A.G.; van Wyk, P.J.; and Holtzhausen, L.C., 1990, Marula, Fruits of tropical and subtropical origin,  pp. 88-115, Florida Science Source, Lake Alfred).Another Argan perhaps?

Always interested by "Traditional Medical Practice", I thought that I might check out marula in my African references; always a little difficult as plants have different names in local languages.However I did have a clue, as Linda Costa had written that above the entrance to the Hope Fountain  Church is the inscription Ugubonwaa Gu Be Gumlimu which, translated from the Ndebele, means Come and here you will see God.Ndebele?The Bantu language of  the Ndebeles.Fortunate to have a list of Ndebele plant names with corresponding botanical names, it was a simple task of cross-referencing. Umganu!Armed with this information, I quickly discovered that the root of marula is widely used by the n'anga, or traditional medical practitioner, for a wide variety of symptoms, diseases or other reasons ranging from cough, through  menorrhagia, sore eyes, heart pains, diarrhoea, schistosomiasis, to the prevention of evil spirits!I shall be investigating further.

Knitbone,  Doubleday, Hills & Bear.
Following the offer of Comfrey (Symphytum  officinale L.) the other month, several overseas customers called up to enquire: What can I use it for?...Can I use it in cosmetics?...What is it?
These days the office leaves the answers to me and, unfortunately, I have forgotten more than I have remembered!Therefore, if I am not to be made redundant before my time, I have to revise continuously and such questions keep me on my toes

Not many herbs are known as multi-purpose or special herbs but among those privileged few is comfrey.A demulcent, alterative and astringent, its Latin name symphytum comes from the Greek word symphuo, meaning "I unite" or  grow together.Because of its rapid healing of fractures it became nicknamed as  Knitbone or Nipbone.Although most refer botanically to our native comfrey as Symphytum officinale, I am not so sure.I would think it more likely that it is  Symphytum x uplandicum Nyman (Russian or blue comfrey).Why?It is quite an  interesting story.

In 1771 a certain Joseph Busch, a nurseryman and a landscape gardener, decided to sell up his business and take a job in Russia with Catherine the Great, as head gardener to the palace of St. Petersburg. From there he sent back several "symphytums" - these were related to the British  S. officinale but called S. asperrimum because the leaves and stems are not  hairy but covered with short stiff bristles, hence its popular name Prickly Comfrey and specific name of Asperrimum or "roughest".The flowers are a vivid  blue.As many will know, Officinale has cream white and yellow flowers; var.  patens has purple flowers.In 1913 it was decided to shorten the name to S. asperum Lepechin.However the story does not stop here.

I am sure that many have heard of Henry Doubleday (1813-1902) and the Henry Doubleday Research Association, renowned for its pioneering work in organic farming, but how many know the origin of the Association?

Henry Doubleday had patented a glue  used on postage stamps, but which was soon to be replaced by a lickable one (why are stamps not yet self-adhesive?).His glue contained gum arabic [obtained from the stem and branches of Acacia senegal Wild. and some other species of Acacia.A. senegal is a tree about 6m high, which is abundant in the Sudan, particularly in the province ofKordofan, in central Africa and in West Africa.The tree is known in Kordofan as Hashab and in Senegambia as Verek. The best gum is that produced in Kordofan from tapped trees, but some Senegal and Nigerian gum is of good quality.The Senegal gum is largely used for  pharmaceutical purposes on the Continent. An excellent, general stabilizer, we used tonnes of it in our food factory in Spain and I recollect being stopped by Customs at Perpignan, whilst carrying a drum of it, to be accused of transporting drugs!] which was then becoming scarce.

He badly needed a  new glue and so having heard that comfrey was mucilaginous he sent away to St.  Petersburg for some plants.He also had notions of a comfrey which might help save some of the starving people in Ireland, one million of whom had died in the potato famine.However what Henry actually received from Russia was an F1 hybrid from Joseph Busch who had planted the sky blue S. asperrimum next to the  cream yellow S. officinale.Thus S. xuplandicum was born.

Forced out of business by changing fortunes, Doubleday continued to farm his smallholding using comfrey to feed his stock and spending much time experimenting with the  plant over some thirty years.For all his efforts on comfrey Henry Doubleday was offered a Fellowship of the Royal Society, but was so hard up that he could  not afford the 6 guineas membership and election fee.

Years later  Laurence Hills, who dedicated his life to the organic cause, became interested in the work of Doubleday.Asked by a Mr. Lasker, a Canadian, to supply five thousand comfrey plants to Canada; this he was able to do and supervised the transport and planting.Lasker rewarded him with the generous gift of a ton of  lucerne (Medicago sativa L.) seed tax-free.The lucerne arrived and was promptly impounded, pending payment of duties.Despite the efforts of MPs Reggie Maudling and Lord Allport, the seed remained immovable until a certain lady who had imported a black bear as a gift for London Zoo was able to secure  the release of her bear and also the lucerne.The seed was promptly sold for  £275 and the proceeds used to purchase 20 Convent Lane, Bocking, Essex and to  start the Henry Doubleday Research Association.A great story, delightfully told in Philip Clarke's slim volume on the subject.    

The Case for Comfrey.
Over the years there has developed some confusion about the safety of comfrey which, coincidentally, may have been prompted by Hills who mentioned  in his book Comfrey (1976) that tea or tablets prepared from comfrey had caused  liver failure due to pyrrolizidine alkaloids which break down in an hour giving toxins which block veins in the liver.In fact,research does show that, as  isolated substances, pyrrolizidine alkaloids are highly toxic to the liver, but it is still unclear whether they are toxic in the context of the whole plant, as  they are only present in minute amounts, often being completely absent from samples of dried aerial plants.The highest concentration is in the root. However, as Andrew Chevallier points out in The Encyclopedia of Medicinal  Plants, the legitimate question mark of comfrey's safety needs to be balanced by  a deeper understanding of its therapeutic properties.

According to some  researchers (Mascolo, N., Capassa, F., Menghini, A., and Fasulo, M.P.,  Biological screening of Italian medicinal plants for anti-inflammatory activity,  Phytotherapy Res., 1, 944, 1987), comfrey is one of the most useful botanicals that can be employed in cosmetics.Comfrey contains allantoin (1.2-4.7%), a  very powerful cell proliferent, which has been used in suppurating wounds and resistant ulcers to stimulate growth of healthy tissue.Comfrey is also an  astringent, anti-inflammatory, antihaemorrhagic, and demulcent.Its  anti-inflammatory activity has been demonstrated in vivo.It has been used in  chronic varicose ulcers, on wounds, fractures, and even hernias (12-15% extract  in ointment base).Comfrey can be used in creams, lotions, ointments, salves, douches, hair rinses, shampoos, and massage and body oils (Frank S. D'Amelio,  Sr., Botanicals: A Phytocosmetic Desk Reference, CRC Press LLC, 1999).

Fazed by Frankincense.
The letter began...In order to familiarise myself with both the botanical and chemical features of  frankincense, I have collected and read all available references (list  enclosed)...However, problems have arisen both with labelling and analytical data when I am comparing the commercial and indigenous material...I would like to stress that I am positive of the species and origin of the raw frankincense tears collected in Somalia...I would therefore like to ask your advice.  I was  flattered, but fazed because the list of references was most extensive and I  doubted that I could add much, if anything at all.

The identification of  the origin of Olibanum oils has always been a nightmare.  Still, let us establish some guidelines.  However it must be understood that the field of  plant systematics is increasingly dynamic, with the emergence of molecular evidence and cladistic analysis of these and other data.  In other words, we are  routinely confronted with proposals to change existing classifications and/or nomenclature.  Therefore, for this exercise, I have chosen as my reference the just published World Economic Plants with its up-to-the-minute botanical  nomenclature.  This is the point at which we may have to re-write some of the literature!

Boswellia carteri (not carterii) Birdwood is now classified  as synonymous with Boswellia sacra Flueckiger and Boswellia glabra Roxb. with Boswellia serrata Roxb. ex Colebr.  For those who prefer trivial names, B. sacra is frankincense or olibanum-tree; B. serrata, Indian frankincense or Indian  olibanum-tree; B. frereana Birdwood is variously called African elemi, elemi frankincense or yigaartree; and B. papyrifera (Delile ex Caill.) Hochst. is called elephant-tree or Sudanese frankincense.  The eagle-eyed will note that  there is no reference to B. thurifera, which for many years was the chosen nomenclature for frankincense by many essential oil suppliers (including us!).  In fact, I think that thurifera is synonymous with frereana. 

Where do they all originate?  Your guess is probably as good as mine but, officially, sacra from N.E. Tropical Africa and the Arabian Peninsula; frereana is also from N.E. Tropical Africa (generally assumed to be Somalia); papyrifera occurs from  N.E. Nigeria to Ethiopia; and serrata is definitely from India.  I have not been to Somalia for many years (there always seems to be a war going on) but the  local people, to collect the gum, used to cut the bark of the tree to release  the white resin which congealed into the famous "tears".  They picked the tears off the bark or from the ground.  I doubt that they knew one tree from another  but, if they did, how did these pastoral wanderers communicate this vital information to the traders?

I thought that I had it all worked out.  A research paper by Shuichi Hayashi et al., published in The Journal of Essential  Oil Research, 10, 25-30, 1998, confirmed that B. frereana contains alpha-pinene as the main compound, while B. carteri (as it was still described) contains  octyl acetate and octanol as main constituents.  All agreed that the composition  of the volatile oil is dependent upon its geographic location.  They concluded, based upon older scientific work, that Somalian oils contained quite high levels of alpha-pinene (42%) and,  interestingly, Turkish, Israeli and Egyptian oils  contained very little, but were high in octyl acetate (28.5-68.5%). 

All  was fine until the GC/MS analysis of my cherished Omani B. sacra returned: it contained 63.062% alpha-pinene.  By the way, Shuichi and his chums achieved the  same results with their Omani oils.  Therefore, in the new scheme of things, it seems that my sacra may be frereana; but where is the true sacra or carteri?   All my so-called Somalian oils also contain alpha-pinene and no octyl acetate or octanol  One thing I can confirm, however, is that serrata contains a whopping 65% of alpha-thujene, as it should.  On reflection, we were probably right all along to call our frankincense thurifera.  Maybe a closer look at papyrifera  might reveal something, but that will have to be another story.  Meanwhile I am calling Turkey, Israel and Egypt in my quest for sacra!  

Dr. Schnaubelt speaks his mind.
I do like Kurt Schnaubelt's California Comments, reported  quarterly in the constantly improving Aromatic Thymes.  Scientific director of the Pacific Institute of Aromatherapy, his two books Medical Aromatherapy and Advanced Aromatherapy are quickly becoming accepted as the standard in the  field.  Dr. Schnaubelt has the ability to cut straight to the heart of the matter without equivocation.  On this occasion, he is commenting on the  proceedings of The Second Scientific Aromatherapy Symposium: Therapeutic Uses of  Aromatic Plants, which took place recently in Grasse, France.         

I  believe the time will come soon when speakers at conferences such as these will stop telling the audience what they must or must not do.  Instead, they will  offer information leading to a more refined understanding of why oils in fact  are different.  Doctrines of lifelessness can only explain so much of what oils do.  It seems aromatherapy needs to confront its own history and realize that  whatever little theoretical framework there is, was mostly shaped by chemistry.  Beginning with the chemical classification of essential oil components by  Charabot and Dupont to Gattefosse, Valnet, Belaiche, Penoel, and Franchomme, the  naming of constituent compounds was aromatherapy's attempt at academic reasoning.  As a result, we now know a fair amount about what compounds are in an oil, but we are quite clueless as to what they do and how they do what they do.  In everyone's rush to teach the how we forgot to figure out why  aromatherapy works. 

Musing on Manuka.
As if to illustrate this very  point, I received in the same post a copy of Scentsitivity in which there was an essential oil profile of Manuka (Leptospermum scoparium Forster & Forster) by Kristen Blinne.  Upon checking her bibliography, I noted that there were no serious, scientific references.  Still, be that as it may, I was fascinated to learn that my "old friend" Manuka, based on beta-caryophyllene, geraniol,  linalool, alpha-pinene, geranyl acetate, monoterpene hydrocarbons, pinene, terpinene, calamanene, limonene, myrcene and leptospermone (the chemical  components listed in the profile), is analgesic, anaesthetic, antiasthmatic,  antibacterial, antifungal, antihistamine, anti-inflammatory, anti-microbial,  antiparasitic, antipruritic, antiseptic, antiviral, antizymotic, aphrodisiac, deodorant, diaphoretic, expectorant, fungicidal, germicidal, immune stimulant, insecticide, nervine, sedative and vulnerary. 

Considered useful for  acne, arthritis, asthma, blisters, bronchitis, burns, candida, colds, cold sores, coughs, cuts, dermatitis, eczema, fever, fleas and ticks, fungal  infections, gingivitis, herpes, insect bites, influenza, lung infections, lice,  muscular aches, pneumonia, psoriasis, rashes, rheumatism, ringworm, sinus  congestion, stings, sore throat, tinea, thrush, urinary tract infections, vaginitis, warts and wounds, it can also allay fear, anxiety and stress, and  assist with low libido. 

I fear that science is not so extravagant with its claims.  In fact, it is downright conservative!  However, taking on board  Dr. Schnaubelt's comments, let us take a closer look at the chemical composition of manuka and then you can make your own judgment as to its usefulness. 

I had the good fortune, whilst attending Pacific Oils 2000 in Auckland a couple of years ago, to listen to a Keynote Lecture by Professor Wilkins of the  Department of Chemistry, University of Waikato, about the Chemical and  Compositional Analyses of New Zealand Manuka and Kanuka Oils.

First it must be appreciated that we can no longer generalise about manuka.  Whilst it  has long been known that the steam distilled essential oils from these plants  are predominantly comprised of monoterpenes and sesquiterpenes, chemical analyses of commercial manuka oils have revealed the existence of several  chemotypes.  Our analysis company, Analytical Intelligence, has carried out analyses similar to those of Professor Wilkins and would confirm the existence  of at least three, and possibly five, manuka chemotypes.  A manuka chemotype occurring only on the East Cape of New Zealand affords an oil exhibiting  antiseptic properties.  Analysis of East Cape oil revealed appreciable levels (>20% in total) of three novel beta-triketones, namely leptospermone,  iso-leptospermone and flavesone.

Only negligible, or nil, levels of beta-triketones were identified in oils from other manuka chemotypes.  All of  the manuka chemotypes are characterised by the presence of a complex series of  alpha-cubebene, alpha-copaene, beta-elemene, alpha-gurjunene, caryophyllene, aromadendrene, allo-aromadendrene, humulene, zonarene, calamenene, amorphene  isomers, selinene isomers, cadinene isomers, muurolene isomers and other  sesquiterpene hydrocarbons.

The most widely distributed non-triketone  chemotype typically possessed >70% sesquiterpenes, while a South Island of  New Zealand chemotype was characterised by the presence of appreciable levels of  eudesmol isomers, linalool, and an array of acyclic oxygenated monoterpenes. Which chemotype, I wonder, is Kristen using and why?

Canadian Caper.
I  use the word caper meaning neither playful jump nor prank, but a fantastic  proceeding.  At the end of the month Jan heads across the Atlantic for the first (hopefully of many) Canadian International Congress of Aromatherapy in Downtown  Toronto where, from October 30th through November 1st, the good and the great of aromatherapy will discuss how and why aromatherapy works. 

The Canadian Federation of Aromatherapists and The Institute of Aromatherapy (Canada) are to  be congratulated upon assembling such a distinguished group: Jane Dye,  Ulla-Maija Grace, Daniel Penoel, Len and Shirley Price, Jeanne Rose, Michael Scholes, Sylla Sheppard-Hangar, Christoph Streicher, Dietrich Wabner, Chrissie  Wildwood and Jan Benham.  For almost even longer than I can remember, these personalities have bestridden  the world of aromatherapeutics like colossi.  We owe them much.  Who, I wonder, will replace them in the new millennium? 

Still Toronto will provide an opportunity, which should be widely  welcomed throughout Canada and the northern United States, for all those who wish not only to learn but also to preserve knowledge for future generations.  Alongside the conference is a two day trade show featuring over 120 booths and tables, with exhibitors from Egypt, France, Australia, the USA, Canada and the United Kingdom.  To cap it all, there will be a Halloween Banquet & Dance: definitely an event not to be missed!

However I shall not be attending the Ball as I shall be back here tending to the needs of my ravenous menagerie  and dusting off the red carpet in preparation for the visit of John and Sal, who will be returning from the Conference with their wives and Jan (who will surely check my attention to housekeeping duties!) in time for our Open Day on Sunday,  7th November.

See you there?!

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