They say a visit to Kashmir can divide your life into two halves - before and after Kashmir. Nestling in the lap of the dazzling, snow-capped Himalayas, the Kashmir valley is without doubt a jewel in India’s crown.  Kashmir is the principal region in the state of Jammu and Kashmir, the other two supplementary areas being Jammu and Ladakh.

Srinagar, the state capital, to which we travelled from a rather warm Delhi, has a marvellous temperate climate.  Situated at an altitude of 1,730 metres above sea level, summer daytime temperatures can climb as high as 35 °C but, whilst we were there, it was a most pleasant 25°C or so with chilly nights: much like here, in fact.

Srinagar is probably unique because of its lakes - Dal, Nagin and Anchar - upon which bob numerous houseboats. Although I had no opprtunity to visit one, I read that each houseboat has anything between two and four bedrooms with attached bathrooms and a common sitting and dining room.  All have spacious balconies, upon which it must be most enjoyable just to lounge and watch the world row by.

Primarily there to attend a Seminar - Kashmir: A Bio-Business Centre for Production of High Value Essential Oils - hosted by the Regional Research Laboratory (RRL), we were
invited to stay in RRL’s splendid guest house, which was less than a stone’s throw from the conference centre - most convenient, and very convivial as there were several other guests there as well.  Also, I enjoyed much the opportunity to view the antics of a pair of kites, a bird extraordinarily common in India, as they tended to their brood in a nearby tree.

Finely organized and well attended, with interesting and informative speakers, I thought the Seminar a great success. However, once discussions about development, supply and demand, marketing strategies and the role of aromatic and medicinal plants in aromatherapy were over, we were kept busy 14 hours a day visiting farms and places of interest. The hospitality was quite overwhelming.  I have travelled to many places around the globe, but I can think of not one that can match the warmth of welcome in Kashmir. In truth, it was rather hard to leave.  

As a favourite of the emperors, being cool and refreshing after the plains of Northern India where the business of governance kept them, the Mughals planted in Kashmir gardens with stepped terraces and flowing water courses. As they rested in their gardens, they dreamt they were in paradise. 

Built high above the city, with views as stupendous as its layout, Cheshmashai is the smallest of Srinagar’s Mughal gardens with only three terraces.  However the largest, Nishant, built by Empress Nur Jahan’s brother Asaf Khan, has several terraces, a central water course and a majestic site between the Dal and Zabarwan hills and Shalimar, the other Mughal garden in Srinagar, which was planted by the Mughal emperor Jehangir, whose love for Kashmir was legendary, is quite breathtaking.   Shaded by magnificent chinar trees (Platanus orientalis L.), Shalimar is a series of stone pavillions and flowing water with paintbox-bright flower beds.  Shangri-La! Who remembers the hidden Tibetan valley in J. Hilton’s Lost Horizon?  It could so easily have been in Kashmir. 

As an aside, Xerxes, who was King of Persia from 485 to 465, is said to have written an ode to the chinar, or oriental plane tree as it is perhaps better known, and the moment is recorded in Handel’s opera Xerxes in the famous largo. Also, it is reputed to be the tree under which Hippocrates taught medicine at Kos.  Closer to home, a possible cultivar, ‘Acerifolia’, raised originally at Oxford Botanic Garden from seed received from Montpellier in France, is much planted in London squares as it withstands pollution because of rapidly flaking bark, although hairs from the leaves and fruit can cause bronchial problems.    

Meanwhile, back in Kashmir, we headed for Gulmarg. Although only 52 kilometres from Srinagar, it is an arduous climb for an underpowered 4x4, six up, to almost 9,000 feet above sea level. En route, we dropped into the RRL’s field station at Tangmarg, where they are growing lavender and roses. I thought that the rose trees looked in particularly fine fettle, despite the recent very heavy snows, and Justin was impressed by their distillation facility - functional and well thought out. I, however, was momentarily distracted by a troop of playful macaque monkeys, of which we were to see several during our travels, but I failed to get a glimpse of the reclusive snow leopard which still roams wild in the region.

Gulmarg looks like a fantasy film set and, in fact, has been the venue of several films. A huge cup-shaped meadow, fringed by gigantic fir and pine forests, it is a place of legendary beauty.  Discovered by the romantic Kashmiri king Yousuf Shah Chak in the 16th century, it became one of the most famous summer and winter haunts of British army officers during the Raj.

Much to my surprise, it has a fine 18-hole golf course which, unfortunately, was under several feet of snow.  One of the highest courses in the world, it was relaid with the assistance of the golfer Peter Thompson whom I had not given a second thought since purchasing a set of his clubs more than forty years ago. Weird! With its own historically-interesting club house, the Gulmarg Golf Club has been in existence for more than a century.  Gulmarg is also a winter playground with some of the finest, well-graded ski slopes in the world. Not being a skier, I took full advantage of the superb gondola to scan the ‘runs’. Why go to New Zealand?   It is absolutely magic!

Following a visit to the RRL’s field station at Bonera, which is comparable with any growing and distillation facility in the world, we set out for Pahalgam. However, before embarking on the journey, I reflected on what I had just seen. In addition to lavender and rose, there is little doubt in mind that, given the demand, Kashmir can grow any temperate climate crop.  It will take time of course but I believe that the country has the will and the way to produce some of the finest, organic oils in the world. To get the ball rolling, I have returned with samples of Clary Sage, Geranium and Rosemary to analyse.

At the confluence of the streams flowing from the river Lidder and Sheshnag lake, Pahalgam was once a humble shepherds’ village. Now it is Kashmir’s premier resort, cool even during the height of summer.  Around Pahalgam are many places of interest but, because the resort is set between very steep hills, it is worth going by pony rather than walking. These small, very sure-footed, animals are a wonder to watch as they pick their delicate way up the hillsides.

Pahalgam has within it no fewer than eight tiny villages, one of which is Mamal. Here there is a Shiva temple, considered to be Kashmir’s oldest, dating from the 8th century. Ten miles from Pahalgam is Chandanwari, the starting point of the Amarnath yatra which takes place every year in the month of Sawan (July-August).  The destination is the Amarnath cave which is believed to be the abode of Shiva, a Hindu deity regarded by some as the supreme being.

Kashmir has much to offer all, but my abiding memory of this unforgettable region of India is best summed up by the comments of Douglas Jerrold, who in 1859 wrote of Australia......

Earth is here so kind, that just tickle her with a hoe and she laughs with a harvest.   

Request for advice.
Necrobiosis lipoidica diabeticorum (a skin disease characterized by the formation of reddish yellow plaques, mostly on the legs; occurs most often in older women, especially those with diabetes) - I know that I have asked your advice on this a few years ago, and you asked for peple’s experiences in your Newsletter of December 2003, but I wonder if you have any more recent advice on the subject? e-mailed Alice Rugenheimer.  Unfortunately I don’t.

Alice’s sister, aged 41, has been diabetic since her mid-twenties and developed this skin condition about six years ago. A couple of years ago, Alice made her some gel to apply topically. Although it did not seem to diminish the patches, her sister liked the smell and it helped to soothe the itching and tenderness.

The potion, which Alice concocted, contained 10 drops Yarrow (Achillea millefolium All.), 20 drops Lavender (Lavandula angustifolia Mill.) and 20 drops Roman Chamomile (Chamaemelum nobile (L.) All.) in 250g Aloe Vera Gel.  One of the patches has begun to ulcerate, and Alice wonders if her gel would still be safe to apply.

I would think that it might, because I know of several who have used a similar blend, substituting yarrow with Blue Chamomile (Matricaria recutita L.), to good effect for this purpose.

However, Alices asks.....Can any think of any additions or alternatives to this? I would be very interested to get in touch with anyone who has had experience of essential oils or other complementary therapy treatment for this condition.

Spring is in the air!
Although there must be tens of books that have been written on the subject, I have received recently a stack of requests for a list of essential oils generally regarded as safe for use during pregnancy and childbirth. It must be that time of year! 

Despite my best endeavours to avoid the task by selling a book instead, it became quickly obvious that I was not going to be let off the hook that easily. Perhaps the excitement of impending motherhood puts you off books on the topic, or is it easier for many to have a simple list which they can stuff in a handbag, stick on the fridge, or file for future reference? Whatever, for expectant mums and mums and mums-in-law of expectant mums, I set about drawing up a list of those essential oils which are most often suggested by authors for their known effectiveness in treating specific conditions that may develop during pregnancy and childbirth, as well as helping to reduce tension and aid relaxation. 

However, I urge all to discuss it first with their aromatherapist, midwife or doctor, because I think that essential oils are often assumed to be safe to use because there is no real evidence to the contrary and, until more clinical trials have been undertaken, it would be prudent to work cautiously with essential oils, using the lowest possible dose on the least number of occasions.

Oils generally regarded as safe for use during pregnancy and chidbirth.
Bergamot (Citrus aurantium var. bergamia Risso & Poit) - Effective in treating irritation, stinging and tenderness caused by urinary tract infections which may develop during pregnancy. Has uplifting qualities, helping relieve depression and anxiety. Safe throughout pregnancy.  Caution: phototoxic.

Chamomile Roman (Chamaemelum nobile (L.) All.) - Possesses analgesic and anti-inflammatory properties effective for relieving muscle spasm experienced as backache, or discomfort due to infection within the urinary tract. Gentle and calming to the emotions.  Safe after 16 weeks.

Clary Sage (Salvia sclarea L.) - Helps tone and stimulate the uterus and can be applied to induce labour or strengthen contractions during childbirth.  Also works well as a sedative for stress and tension.  Use only in late pregnancy to induce labour and during childbirth.  Caution: do not use while drinking alcohol.

Cypress (Cupressus sempervirens L.) - A powerful astringent and circulatory tonic that is useful as a treatment for varicose veins and haemorrhoids. Also helps relieve excessive foot perspiration commonly experienced during pregnancy. Safe throughout pregnancy.

Frankincense (Boswellia carteri Birdw.) - Has a toning effect on the skin and helps clear the lungs. This penetrating oil is effective in helping the user cope with extremely stressful situations, inducing a state of concentration. Safe throughout pregnancy.

Geranium (Pelargonium graveolens Heritier) - Good for poor circulation, oedema, breast engorgement, stress and anxiety. Also helps to restore hormonal equilibrium.  Safe throughout pregnancy.

Jasmine (Jasminum grandiflorum L.) - Helps restore hormone balance following childbirth. Also calming and relaxing, encouraging optimism and confidence.  Safe after 16 weeks.

Lavender (Lavandula angustifolia Mill.) - Analgesic, encourages the healing of damaged tissue, prevents excess scar tissue developing, relieves headaches, settles the stomach, stimulates the immune system (helping protect the user from infection), useful in helping treat constipation, has a soothing and gentle presence for helping reduce high blood pressure.  Can be frequently used to enhance the action of many other essential oils.  Safe throughout pregnancy.

Lemon (Citrus limon (L.) Burm. f.) - Helps tone the circulation and reduce tissue congestion.  Also stimulates the immune system, improving the user’s resistance to infection. Safe throughout pregnancy. Caution: phototoxic, may cause irritation.

Mandarin (Citrus reticulata Blanco var. “Mandarin”) - Encourages optimism, and also helps soothe and settle the nervous system and digestive tract.  A bright, gentle and calming essential oil. Safe throughout pregnancy. Caution: possibly phototoxic.

Neroli (Citrus aurantium L. ssp. amara L.) - Acts as a sedative for the nervous system, relieving stress and states of depression. Also good for nourishing the growing layer of skin in treatments for stretch marks.  Safe throughout pregnancy.

Orange (Citrus sinensis (L.) Osbeck) - Helps tone and stimulate the digestive tract, and is useful for digestive upsets. Bright and energizing. Safe throughout pregnancy. Caution: phototoxic.

Patchouli (Pogostemon cablin Benth.) - Good for treating inflamed skin and preventing the development of infection.  Also works well as a nerve tonic and is useful in helping overcome anxiety.  Safe throughout pregnancy.

Peppermint (Mentha piperita L. var. officinalis Sole) - Valuable for helping treat all digestive problems, nausea and headaches.  Also relieves breast engorgement by reducing circulation to breast tissue. May be used in footbaths to refresh and deodorize tired and aching feet. Safe after 16 weeks. Caution: skin irritant in concentration.

Rose (Rosa damascena Mill.) - Relaxing and soothing when experiencing anger or intense emotions.  Also helps regulate hormone balance following childbirth. Safe after 16 weeks.

Rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis L.) - Good for encouraging the circulation needed for the production and flow of breast milk.  Also useful for states of tiredness and fatigue.  Safe in late pregnancy only.  Caution: avoid in cases of high blood pressure.

Sandalwood (Santalum album L.) - A powerful antiseptic, useful when treating urinary tract infections.  Relaxing and supportive.  Safe throughout pregnancy.

Tea Tree (Melaleuca alternifolia Cheel) - Possesses antibacterial, antifungal and antiviral properties which aid the healing of damaged tissue while helping prevent the development of infection.  Safe throughout pregnancy.

Ylang Ylang (Cananga odorata genuina Hook & Thom. f.) - Good for high blood pressure, stress and anxiety.  It is an antidepressant.  Safe throughout pregnancy.

Of course, you may have some difficulty in deciding which essential oil will be the most effective in treating a particular disorder, as properties of some oils overlap. When faced with a choice, inhale a little vapour of each essential oil, and then select the one you like because, if it smells right, it will probably be the most effective for you.

Carrier oils should be used to dilute the essential oils prior to giving massage or topical treatments, essential oils being too concentrated to be applied directly to large areas of the body.  Carrier oils also assist absorption of essential oils through the skin into the circulation.

On the spot!
Phew!  That last item took me rather longer than I had anticipated, but it was probably easier than giving an impromptu lecture on the subject to a group of lady students amidst a field of lavender in Kashmir which, much to the amusement of Justin, I was almost cajoled to do at one farm visit. I declined, giving them instead my share of saffron tea and cakes!  

However, as I was finishing this piece, the following e-mail fluttered in from Dr. Gazalla, the instigator of the plot.....I hope I can see soon all the pictures of my farm on your website, and don’t forget about the Aromatherapy Conference!

Golly! Had I, in my haste not to be drawn on the matter, suggested that it would be better to bring a team of aromatherapists to tell them what was what rather than try to hack it myself?  It seems that I might have done!  Ah well, I can think of no more idyllic spot to host such an event - I shall give it further thought.  Meanwhile, you might care to let me know what you think.

Too cool!
Have you ever wondered what keeping your oils in the fridge might do to them?  Well, it seems that some researchers in India heve been doing just that.  The citrus species, “honey murcott” (Citrus reticulata Blanco cv. murcott), which is most likely a cross between a sweet orange and a tangerine, was found to contain 34 constituents (97.11% of the volatiles).

The variation of these constituents stored under different temperatures has been determined to find possible optimum conditions to preserve the integrity of essential oils [Usai, M. et al. Variations induced by low temperature on essential oil of “honey murcott”. Journal of Essential Oil-Bearing Plants (2004) 7(2), 113-119].

The cold storage trials - constant 6°C (A); repeating cycles of 6°C for 18 days + 14 °C for 7 days (B); repeating cycles of 6°C for 6 days + 14°C for one day (C); repeating cycles of 2°C for 18 days + 14°C for 7 days (D); repeating cycles of 2°C for 6 days + 14°C for one day (E) - showed that few variations in the composition of the essential oils were obtained using cyclic temperature C, and that all chemical compounds were sensitive to low temperatures. A and B conditions were considered to be the next best conditions for storage.  Therefore, it might be wise to check that your fridge is not too cool!
    
Neem deters Highland nipper!
As the holiday season draws closer, I always get a few calls asking me how to fend off the Scottish Highland biting midge (Culicoides impunctatus). Usually I suggest that you stick a sprig of Bog Myrtle (Myrica gale L.) in your apparel but, more recently, several have asked if Neem (Azadirachta indica A. Juss.) might do the trick. It seems that it might!

Neem was evaluated recently for repellent and antifeedant activity against Culicoides biting midges, by three complementary methods with serial dilutions [Blackwell, A. et al. Toward development of neem-based repellents against the Scottish Highland biting midge. Medical and Veterinary Entomology (2004) 18(4), 449-452]. 

Electroantenograms revealed that Culicoides nubeculosus females were sensitive to neem oil at only 0.10%, whilst Culicoides impunctatus females were repelled by 1.0% in a Y-tube olfactometer. Using a membrane feeder for wild-caught parous females of C. impunctatus, the proportion blood-feeding was significantly reduced by topical applications of neem oil at 0.10% concentrations, with blood-feeding completely prevented by 1%.

On the basis of these results, the researchers developed 2% neem-based formulations for personal protection against biting midges. Worth a thought?    

Ladies who lunch! 
The more perspicacious may have wondered why only female midges were involved in the experiments.

Like mosquitoes, midges require blood to develop fertile eggs. Males do not lay eggs, thus, males do not bite. The females are the egg producers and “host-seek” a blood meal.  Female mosquitoes, for example, lay multiple batches of eggs and require a blood meal for every batch they lay.

Are you a likely lunch? 
Scientists are still investigating the complexities involved with mosquito meal requirements.  Some of us are highly appetizing and others rarely feature on the menu. Mosquitoes have very specific requirements to satisfy and process many different factors before they feed.  Many of the mosquito’s physiological demands are poorly understood and many of the processes they use to evaluate potential blood meals remain a mystery.

Female mosquitoes use the CO2 we exhale as their primary cue to our location.  A lunching lady is guided to our skin by following the slipstream of CO2 that exudes from our breath.  Once she is seated, she relies on a number of short-range attractants to determine if we are an acceptable meal.  Folic acid is one chemical that appears to be particularly important.

Although fragrances from hair sprays, perfumes, deodorants, soap and essential oils can cover these chemical clues, they can also function to either enhance or spoil the meal.  However, a dish dressed in dark colours which attracts heat seems to attract diners more than one in light colours which refracts heat. Nevertheless, in most cases, only the lady mosquito seems to know why one meal is more attractive than another!

Smelling it alone may not be enough.
Two controlled trials of aromatherapy to decrease agitation in persons with dementia recently produced promising results, but both studies combined the use of essential oils with massage.  Thus, it was unclear if the effect of the aromatherapy intervention was the result of smelling or the cutaneous absorption of the oils. Therefore, to determine whether smelling lavender oil alone decreases the frequency of agitated behavour in patients with dementia, another study was carried out [Snow, A.L. et al. A controlled trial of aromatherapy for agitation in nursing home patients with dementia. Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine (2004) 10(3), 431-437].

The study design was within-subjects ABCBA - lavender oil (A), thyme oil (B), unscented grapeseed oil (C): 4 weeks of baseline measurement, 2 weeks for each of the 5 treatment conditions (10-week total intervention time), and 2 weeks of postintervention measurement. Oil was placed every 3 hours on an absorbent fabric sachet pinned near the collarbone of each participant’s shirt. 

Agitation was assessed every 2 days using a modified Cohen-Mansfield Agitation Inventory. Olfactory functioning was assessed with structured olfactory identification and discrimination tasks, and with qualitative behavioural observation during those tasks.

Split-middle analyses conducted separately for each of the seven agitated nursing home residents with advanced dementia revealed no treatment effects specific to lavender, no treatment effects nonspecific to pleasant smelling substances, and no treatment effects dependent on order of treatment administration.  There were no differences between participants with more and less intact olfactory abilities.

There is significant evidence in the neurologic and neuropsychologic literature that persons with dementia have impaired olfactory abilities. Concordant with this literature, this study found no support for the use of a purely olfactory form of aromatherapy to decrease agitation in severely demented patients.  Therefore, cutaneous application of the essential oil may be necessary to achieve the effects reported in previous controlled studies.

Comfrey - cure and caution.
Formerly country folk cultivated Comfrey (Symphytum officinale L.) in their gardens for its virtue in wound healing, and the many local names of the plant - Knitbone, Knitback, Boneset and Bruisewort - testify to its long reputation as a vulnerary herb: in the Middle Ages it was a famous remedy for broken bones.  The very name, Comfrey, is a corruption of con firma, in allusion to the uniting of bones it was thought to effect, and the botanical name, Symphytum, is derived from the Geek symphyo (to unite).

In a recent double-blind, multicenter, randomized, placebo-controlled, group comparison study on patients suffering from unilateral acute ankle sprains, the percutaneous efficacy of an ointment of comfrey extract (4 treatments per day for 8 days) was confirmed decisively.   

Compared to the placebo, the active treatment was clearly superior in reducing pain and ankle oedema.  Statistically significant differences between the active and placebo treatments were also shown for ankle mobility and global efficacy. Under active treatment, no adverse drug reactions were reported [Koll, R. et al. Efficacy and tolerance of a comfrey root extract in the treatment of ankle distorsions. Phytomedicine (2004) 11(6), 470-477].

Nevertheless, comfrey is characterized by its pyrrolizidine alkaloid constituents, and the hepatotoxicity of these compounds is well known. Although percutaneous absorption of pyrrolizidines present in comfrey is reported to be low, topical products containing comfrey should only be applied to unbroken skin and their use restricted to ten days or less at any one time.  Also, in view of the toxicity associated with the alkaloid constituents, comfrey should not be used during pregnancy or lactation.

Is this perhaps why treatments were restricted to 8 days, and almost 80% of the participants in the study were male?!

Finally.....
From Dr. S.K. Bakshi, Deputy Director, RRL, Jammu, comes the most encouraging news.....
Good wishes to your son - I am really impressed with the knowledge he has on aromatic plants.  The next generation flourishes! For what more could I ask?    
 

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