 |
 |
 |
 |
 |
 |
 |
How are the terrapins? someone asked the other day. Very well, as it happens, but it brought the memories flooding back.
It may surprise some to learn that we started Essentially Oils more
than 20 years ago on the corner of a friend’s kitchen table in Hurlingham Road, London.
In those days, however, we were officially the European “office” of the Bungawalbyn Pastoral Company of New South Wales, Australia. Still, expanding quickly, I was more than pleased to accept the offer of my aunt’s boxroom in Leicester. Once installed in more commodious surroundings, I asked my aunt if I might have a pet. Of course, dear, but it must be clean and quiet and take up little space. Zounds! Bang went any chance of a dog or parrot, which had been my expectation. Perhaps an iguana, boa constrictor, or small crocodile might pass muster. Forget it!
Somewhat dejectedly, I trudged off to the nearest pet shop in search of a giant African snail. Terrapins! Grand clearance! Must go now! In the wake of the ninja turtle craze, it seems that many pet
emporia were stuck with excess stock of Malaclemys terrapin. Aha! I would take two. Surely, little larger than a 50p piece, they could cause no offence.
Although hardly companionable, their constant splashing and
sploshing was comforting. In any event, based on tales from neighbouring children, it seemed unlikely that they would live much longer than a couple of months. Nevertheless, the years rolled by and when we moved to Mount
Farm the terrapin twins joined me in the office, together with Birdie and the dogs.
They were quite an attraction, and many dropped in simply to view the zoo.
However, one titled lady, a noted conservationist, began
to give me a rather hard time about, what she considered, the terrapins’ smallish tank. I bought ever larger aquaria, but she was never satisfied, eventually suggesting that I build them a swimming pool! Although
now the size of dinner plates, this simply wasn’t on and I installed them at home, where they are still happily cavorting in yet another larger tank!
Curry Patta.
The other week, I was relieved that I was in leafy
Leamington Spa rather than grenade-torn Srinagar in Kashmir. Attending the Central Region IFPA group meeting, I was pleasantly surprised to be greeted by more than twenty smiling faces, for I had been advised that there
might be only six or eight. Obviously the recruitment drive progresses well, and so it should because they are a most charming and well-informed group of ladies. I enjoyed thoroughly my two hours in their company.
Unrestricted in the matter of my talk, I could ramble at will over numerous subjects. I had chosen as my central theme, however, a few oils from my travels in India. Amongst them was Curry patta (Murraya koenigii
(L.) Spreng.), or Curry Leaf, of the family Rutaceae.
Curry patta is native to sub-tropical forests in much of southern Asia and is found, almost, throughout India, where it is widely cultivated for its leaves. It
is a handsome, aromatic, more or less deciduous shrub or small tree growing to about 6 metres in height and 15-40cm in diameter.
The bark is dark brown in colour and the leaves are imparipinnate. The fragrant white flowers arise in terminal, corymbose panicles and the wrinkled, sub-globose fruit turns black when ripe.
The leaves, fruit, roots
and bark are all used for various purposes.
The leaves help digestion and relieve nausea, indigestion and vomiting. They also treat diarrhoea and dysentery and, in India, are considered a hair tonic to prevent greying. They may be used also as a poultice for wounds and burns. Bark and roots are used as stimulants and applied externally to cure snake bite and eruptions. The berries are edible, and their juice is mixed with lime juice (Citrus aurantifolia Swingle) to soothe insect bites and stings. Needless to say, the leaves appear frequently in curries as a spice for flavouring and, as such, appear to be without any side effects and toxicity. In fact antidiabetic activity has been reported for the leaves, but no such reports were available in the literature until recently.
The scientific evaluation of the hypoglycaemic activity of the aqueous extract of Murraya koenigii leaves was explored on normal and alloxan-diabetic rabbits and also compared with the effect of a standard hypoglycaemic
drug, tolbutamide [Journal of Ethnopharmacology (2005), 97(2), 247-251].
A single oral administration of variable dose levels (200, 300, and 400 mg/kg) of aqueous extract led to lowering of blood glucose level in normal as well as in diabetic rabbits. The maximum fall of 14.68% in normal and 27.96% in mild diabetic was observed after 4 hours of oral administration of 300 mg/kg. The same dose also showed a marked improvement in glucose tolerance of 46.25% in sub-diabetic and 38.5% in mild diabetic rabbits in glucose tolerance test after 2 hours. The findings suggest that the aqueous extract of the leaves may be prescribed as an adjunct to dietary therapy and drug treatment for controlling diabetes mellitus.
Of course, it would be quite incorrect to assume that the topical application of the essential oil would have a similar effect, but it is interesting all the same.
A related species, Murraya paniculata (L.) Jack,
variously known as cosmetic bark tree, jasmine-orange, Chinese-box, or orange-jessamine, which originates in India and Indo-China, is one of several trees, shrubs, and plants cultivated in the Far East for the purpose of
producing leaves and flowers with which to scent Indian and Chinese teas.
Its leaves are occasionally admixed with cured tea leaves to add a special fragrance. The bitter leaves are taken to treat catarrh and to reduce fevers by increasing sweating and, in China, they have been used to help speed up childbirth. Speed up childbirth? I could find no reference to this fact in the literature and, therefore, speculated if it could have anything to do with infertility.
Considering the limitations of hormones, the plant remedies mentioned in ancient texts and traditional practice need to be explored scientifically to evolve suitable alternatives to correct reproductive dysfunctions.
In a recent report [Mehrotra, S. et al. Effect of certain indigenous medicinal plants on ovarian hormone profile and reproductive performance in anoestrus cattle. Indian
Journal of Animal Reproduction (2005) 26
(1), 20-23], the effects of Curry patta and Nettle (Urtica dioica L.) were observed on the serum oestrogen and progesterone concentrations and induction of oestrus and conception in anoestrous cattle.
Animals in the two
treatment groups were given an oral dose of plant powder for nine days (day 0-8). The onset of oestrus and pregnancy was recorded. There were significantly increased oestrogen levels in the Murraya treated group
without changes in progesterone concentrations and appreciable induction of fertility. There were no significant differences in the Urtica group. These results show that M. koenigii may help improve the
fertility and reproductive performance of anoestrous cows. Could this be why the Chinese use the leaves?
Earlier investigations on Indian curry leaf oil, hydrodistilled from fresh leaves, led to the
identification of a-pinene, b-pinene, b-caryophyllene, isosafrole, lauric and palmitic acids. Later, Sri Lankan oil was reported to contain monoterpenes (15.9%) and sesquiterpenes (80.2%) with b-phellandrene, b-caryophyllene,
b-gurjunene, b-elemene, and a-selinene as the main constituents. However, Chinese oil oil was reported to contain a- and b-pinenes, b-caryophyllene and g-elemene as main constituents, whereas leaf oil from Malaysia was
shown to be rich in monoterpenes and oxygenated monoterpenes (ca. 85%) with a-pinene, limonene, b-phellandrene, terpinen-4-ol and b-caryophyllene as the main contents.
More recently, the essential oil of Indian
curry leaf collected from two different places in India has been investigated for its composition.
The oils from the two places were found to contain mostly monoterpenes and oxygenated monoterpenes. The main items identified are a-pinene (19.0-19.7%), sabinene (31.8-44.85), b-pinene (4.2-4.7%), a-terpinene (1.3-4.3%), b-phellandrene (6.5-7.9%), g-terpinene (3.9-7.1%) and terpinen-4-ol (5.2-9.9%). Although many of these compounds have already been reported in Malaysian curry leaf oil, there are marked differences between the oils, which suggests that the curry leaf plant exists in different chemical varieties.
Nevertheless, what continues to interest me is whether the essential oil alone has a role to play, or is it just the glycoside koenigin and tannins which are the actives?
I think not, and curry leaf oil is probably worth consideration in its own right.
An interesting question!
Do you have any suggestions for dealing with red mites in hens and hen houses?
asked Nicky Wesson. An interesting question, because multi-coloured “eglus” are sprouting everywhere hereabouts, but I haven’t a clue!
Surprisingly perhaps, I have never kept chickens. However, we had
several scratching around the farm in Australia and I recollect that someone was deputed to spray them regularly with a tea tree/water solution to deter them from plucking their feathers.
It must have been effective, as they always seemed in fine condition. All the same, because we were producers of Tea Tree oil (Melaleuca alternifolia Cheel), anything/anyone that moved tended to get sprayed with the “magic oil” - it was all part of the marketing programme. Happy days!
Still, during the 1940s and early 1950s, my grandparents had numerous hens and bantams, and I remember that the woodwork in the hen houses was treated annually with a blow-lamp and creosote, and the runs limed and
fumigated with cayenne pepper. As a smallish boy, I thought it all quite hazardous.
As the runs were immaculately maintained, the chickens were encouraged to make full use of the dust baths
provided. Coal or coke cinders, with powdered charcoal added, made a fine dust bath, to which Derris powder and powdered quassia chips were added weekly. It was all quite a chore, for I was often charged with the
task when I visited!
If any pest infestation was spotted, the birds were immediately grabbed by the legs and held upside down so that the feathers opened easily and let in the dusting powder.
I seem to think that powdered tobacco was particularly effective. When dusting, it was most important that the feathers were turned the wrong way out.
Young chicks would have a little oil of eucalyptus (Eucalyptus globulus Labill.) applied
around the neck, under the beak, and rubbed into the top of the head - avoiding the eyes. These were the areas most likely to be
affected.
Nonetheless, I doubt that many use solid fuel these days and I would not know where to start my quest for quassia chips, but I do see that Derris powder is available through the Organic Gardening Catalogue
(0845 130 1304) and snuff can presumably be obtained from specialist tobacconists.
For these purposes, however, I am unsure whether snuff has authorization within the terms of the EU Biocidal Product Directive. Do they take snuff in Europe?!
Naming lavenders.
Barely had I finished last month’s
Newsletter when, out of the blue, Charlie Byrd was on the phone asking if I would be interested in any Snowshill Lavender.
You bet I would! As well as Grosso (Lavandula x intermedia Emeric ex. Loisel), Snowshill is growing Maillette and Folgate.
Grosso was discovered about 1972 in the Vaucluse district by Monsieur Pierre Grosso a local
farmer from Goult, who had been growing lavandin since 1931.
Finding some strong-looking lavandin plants in the middle of deserted fields, M. Grosso took some cuttings and planted them on his own land. The plants proved most vigorous and the yields surpassed that of other varieties. Neighbouring farmers soon spotted his success and M. Grosso quickly had a ready market for his cuttings. It soon became popular and widespread, as it has a long life and is very hardy and is resistant to yellow decline, or dépérissement, which destroyed the Abrialii fields during the 1950s-60s. In 1975 Grosso represented 10% of the French lavandin crop and by 1980 it was up to 55%.
I know Maillette well, for we buy it from France. Monsieur Maillet was a small farmer from the Valensole area, and he assessed oils from plants which he selected continuously for more than 30 years. It is
probable that Maillette was one of his own selections and not from Pierre Grosso as some have suggested. It seems to have been quite widely planted in the 1950s.
Maillette is the main variety of Lavandula angustifolia
used in France today. I would think that it is grown primarily for the perfume industry, because it mixes well in alcohol and has less variation than the wild lavender.
Also, it is disease-resistant and easier to grow. There are at least five clones of Maillette growing in the Alpes-de-Haute-Provence, but I am not sure which Snowshill has.
Folgate also has an interesting
provenance. The Folgate Nursery was one of two nurseries owned by the Chilvers family, who have long fascinated me because the founder of the firm, Frederick Tibbett Chilvers, named his son after the great Swedish
botanist Carl Linnaeus.
Fred was a Royal Warrant holder and supplied plants to Queen Alexandra at Sandringham from their nursery and florist business in Heacham and Hunstanton, two small towns on the Norfolk coast.
In the 1920s, his father having died in 1916, Linn Chilvers, wishing to expand, acquired a tenancy from one the Cambridge colleges for what was to become the Heacham Nursery. The Folgate Nursery was about ¼ mile away,
and he named one particularly good lavender Folgate. However none seems to know when the nursery or the lavender came into being.
Home grown?
I think that we should support the surrounding environment and
encourage what is natural and native to us. I’m aiming to use only locally grown/sourced essential and vegetable oils, e-mailed Claire Day. An admirable thought, but not as easy as you may think.
Within reason,
any temperate region aromatic plant could be locally grown and distilled for its oil but, to my knowledge, distillation facilities in this country are few and far between.
To set up a decent distillation plant is not cheap and, ideally, it should be run throughout the year to maximize its potential. Whilst some may find that temperate crops will satisfy their annual financial needs, probably with a generous contribution from related tourism to assist, others will have to import and store raw materials from far afield for distillation during the Winter and Spring months to make ends meet.
A range of opportunities exists for the development of high value horticultural crops such as volatile oil crops, food colourants, the organic sector, wild flowers, dried flowers, preserved plant material, and
pharmaceutical extracts. Within these sectors, opportunities arise from the development of new markets, the expansion or refining of existing markets, or replacing imports.
When I started in the UK industry in 1985, I
recollect that the UK had imported the previous year 754 tonnes of peppermint oil, 136 tonnes of lavender and lavandin, and 17 of rose - plenty of opportunity for import substitution you would think.
However, an increase in the UK share of the market, for both home and overseas sales, is dependent on two requirements. First, buyers must be convinced that home production can be advantageous to them for existing markets and for entry into new ones. The main needs are reliability of supply, easy access to it, maintenance of suitable quality, and cost. Secondly, farmers must be reasonably certain of an adequate return for their investment and efforts, in comparison with other types of land use.
Of course, given the low oil content of most essential oil crops, and the complex interactions of oil content with climate, fertility and production regime, there is ample scope to increase the base productivity of the
crops, and development of distillation technology can increase extraction rates, and therefore productivity, and decrease distillation time, reducing capital and running costs, but time marches on.
Since 1984, other
countries have also recognized the value of producing essential oils, and invariably at a lower cost. For example, lavender grown elsewhere in the world can often be half the price of English lavender and, in my opinion,
is rarely of inferior quality.
I still buy rose oil from Peter Wilde, who was the first in more than 200 years to produce it from native roses, but he now produces it at far less cost from roses grown in Thailand. UK peppermint, although worthy of a premium, is simply too expensive when compared with American and Chinese oils. Why? Are UK yields too low, or overheads too high?
Little more than 10 years ago, Monsieur Verlet, of the French Ministry of Agriculture, wrote:It is necessary to establish the relative cost of fully mechanized production and production relying entirely on manual
labour. Comparison of two species, grown under the same system, indicates that there is considerable variation in relative costs at different levels of mechanization.
The profitability of a system based on manual labour, or at an advanced stage of mechanization, depends upon how well the crop variety is adapted to the environment, as well as a wide range of economic parameters. For example, labour costs are approximately 30 times higher in France than India, and although this comparative advantage has already made Indian jasmin competitive, it is unlikely that India will also become a profitable area for growing lavender. Ten years later, it is! Growers would be prudent to heed this.
Gotu Kola for leg ulcers?
I have heard that Gotu Kola is recommended for the healing of long-standing leg ulcers. Can you confirm this? asked Dawn Moore.
Gotu Kola (Centella asiatica (L.) Urb.) is used
clinically in Europe for leg ulcers in postphlebitic patients (injectable extract); accelerating healing of superficial postsurgical wounds; inhibiting hypertrophic formation of scar tissue in the treatment of second- and
third-degree burns; and more general use in wounds, ulcer, and scleroderma, by topical application.
A slender, creeping, perennial, Centella asiatica flourishes in and around water and damp swampy areas, but is often
observed growing along stone walls, or other rocky, sunny areas. Originally found in India and Pakistan, Gotu Kola proliferates in hot and humid climates. It has been used as a medicine in India since prehistoric times
and is probably identical with the plant manduka parni. Fresh extracts of the plant seem to have been used for medicinal purposes by the people of Java and other islands near the Malay Peninsula for many years as both
topical and internal agents for the healing of wounds and relief from leprosy.
It is presently being used in numerous herbal energy stimulants for strengthening the body. Other clinically tested uses include
improving circulation by thinning the blood [M. Weiner, Weiner’s Herbal, Stein & Day, New York, 1980, 94], exerting limited sedation on the cholinergic mechanism in the central nervous system [Velazco, B.A. Traditional
herbal practices and motherhood. Philippine J. Nur. 50:96, 1980].
Considering what Gotu Kola is reported to have done from a medical perspective for skin problems in other countries, it is not surprising that Western clinicians have investigated its potential.
Centella contains
vallejin, a bitter principle, and a mixture of triterpenoid glycosides, the most abundant of which is asiaticoside, and madecassoside which on hydrolysis produces asiatic acid, glucose, and rhamnose.
It also contains traces of an alkaloid, volatile oil, and pectin.
The active principles in Gotu Kola - asiaticoside and madecassoside - act as detergents and dissolve the waxy covering of bacillus that
causes leprosy and skin tuberculosis and penetrates the greasy film surrounding the herpes virus.
Asiaticoside also helps heal ugly skin lesions common in lupus erythematosus and herpes simplex by promoting a rapid thickening of the skin and an increased blood supply to the connective tissue [Boiteau, P. & Ratsimamanga, A.R. Asiaticoside, extracted from Centella asiatica. Its therapeutic uses in the healing of experimental or refractory wounds, leprosy, skin tuberculosis, and lupus. Therapie, 11, 125-149, 1956]. This constituent is also responsible for accelerated growth of hair and nails as well [Weiner, cp. idem].
However, in one study, a burning sensation was reported by 4 of 20 patients, during the period of application of an aerosol preparation containing gotu kola, but it is not clear whether other components in the
formulation contributed to this reaction. Also, it is stated that gotu kola may produce photosensitization. Furthermore, excessive doses (orally, I would think, but it should be borne in mind all the same) may
interfere with hypoglycaemic therapy and increase serum-cholesterol concentrations.
Still, the chemistry of Gotu Kola is well studied.
Documented clinical and animal data support its use as a dermatological agent. Nevertheless, in view of the lack of toxicity data, the use of Gotu Kola during pregnancy should probably be avoided.
Shell ginger?
Have
you heard about Shell ginger oil (Japanese name is Gettou)?
In Japan, this oil is from Okinawa island where it is used as a repellant, deodorant, antifungal, and antibacterial. It is also very good for muscle tension, e-mailed Harumi.
I live in Australia now and, to my
surprise, I have found the plant growing on my property.
I believed that it only grew in Japan. So I asked a friend, who is an essential oil producer, to distil some for me and test the oil. I attach the results and a
comparison with the Japanese oil. There is a big difference. I’ll send you some oil to look at, if you are interested.
Most interesting! Shell ginger (Alpinia zerumbet (Pers.) B.L. Burtt & R.M. Sm.), which is
sometimes referred to as ‘Alpinia speciosa’, is quite widely cultivated in Hawaii. Contrary
to what Harumi thought, I have never considered it specific to Japan. In fact, when in Fiji a few years ago I saw several
‘yellow’ gingers, as they are called locally.
Although ginger (Zingiber officinale Roscoe) is widely used in Fijian herbal medicines, there is no tradition of the use of wild gingers such as Alpinia and Hedychium
species, which quite surprised me and, therefore, I took a look at some oils extracted from the leaves and rhizomes of Fijian Shell ginger, which had been analysed at the University of the South Pacific in Suva. Of course, back
in England, I gave them no further thought....until now! Unfortunately I don’t know yet from which part of the plant Harumi’s oil has been extracted but, all the same, let’s do some comparisons.
The oils from the
rhizomes and leaves of A. zerumbet in Fiji were very similar, and both contained respectively terpinen-4-ol (41.4/40.9%) as the major constituent with b-pinene (4.0/10.0%), and 1,8-cineole (28.1/13.2%). The analysis of
the oil from Okinawa, which Harumi kindly sent, is fairly sketchy, but cineole (1,8-cineole I would think) predominates (16.6%) with terpinen-4-ol (11.5%), p-cymene (10.7%) and b-pinene (7.30%) as other major
constituents. Harumi’s oil, however, is very different with 1,8-cineole (51.77%) as the major constituent and liberal quantities of b- (16.67%) and a-pinene (7.52%). Oils are fascinating!
Looking ahead.
As the temperature today is somewhat reminiscent of Suva, I think that I shall push off early rather than embark on a lengthy examination of Zingiber zerumbet (L.) Sm. This is a native of tropical
Asia, and is commonly known as shampoo ginger. In the southern United States it is also known as pinecone ginger.
The inflorescence resembles a tight pine cone and releases a thick juice when squeezed. This juice is used to make the Paul Mitchell and Freeman’s shampoos, but that’s a story for coming months.
Meanwhile, seats
for the Open Day are going fast. This year, Jane Buckle, the author of the classic text, Clinical Aromatherapy: Essential Oils in Practice, will be giving us the benefit of her post-doctoral experience in the United
States. Now Principal Lecturer and Programmes Manager: Complementary Therapies at Thames Valley University, she is well placed to judge the differences between the American and British approaches to aromatherapy and to suggest
some pointers for research.
As I know absolutely nothing about cosmetics and their ingredients, I was delighted when Maurene Charlwood, author of Cosmetic Watch: Lifting the lid off cosmetic ingredients, agreed to come
along to tell us a little about perfumes of the past, and a little more besides I suspect. She’s quite a live wire, and shares my enthusiasm for large, African dogs!
Although we have never met, Christine
Stacey and I have discussed the antics of her cat Zeppelin whilst under the influence of Spikenard! With many years of nursing to her credit, ranging from the early days of paediatric cardiology, through the American
Family Nurse Practitioner qualification, to family planning, counselling, tropical diseases, vaccination, sports injuries, medical evacuation and major trauma, she has developed also an interest in complementary medicine
through working with and talking to the various medical paradigms in the countries in which she has worked. Currently Programme Leader, Department of Health Development, at the University of Greenwich, who better to tell
us about education in Complementary and Alternative Medicine?
After last year’s debacle, due to my misunderstanding of the word ‘powerpoint’, I had to invite back Peter Wilde to right my wrong, particularly as he now has
a finely illustrated account (magnificent photographs) of his recent venture to Oman to look at Rose and Incense production in the old-fashioned way.
It should be quite a day!
Finally.....
I’m off for a cold beer!