Cri de bain!
Foolishly, I have used frankincense oil directly in the bath (acrylic).  It has stained the bath by ingratiating itself into the acrylic layers. Nothing I know or have asked about is working. One “bath doctor” company won’t tell me what to use, though they know what will remove the oil. They are happy to charge me a fortune to come and do it for me.  Presumably it is some sort of caustic soda?  I was wondering if you have come across this problem before. My house is up for sale, as I want to clear the bath. Surely that’s a bit like selling the car when the ash-tray’s full!

Anne Russell’s tale of woe is sadly not unusual. My last “cry from the bath” was from a sobbing therapist, who was standing naked in her bath whilst the gentleman from the flat below beat upon her door demanding compensation, the bottom of her bath having dropped out and dumped gallons of water on the hapless fellow’s priceless Persian rug! Of course, there was little that I could do except console her.  Still, even had the bottom of her bath still been intact, I would not have known what to recommend to circumvent the impending disaster.  Do others have any suggestions?

Sizing up Australian Sandalwood.
I see that you are giving up Indian Sandalwood.  Tell me more about the Australian oil. 

I must have been asked about Australian sandalwood more than a dozen times during the last month.  Therefore, although I am probably repeating myself, for newer readers here is a precis of the case for Santalum spicatum (R. Br.) A. DC.

International recognition has traditionally been concentrated around Sandalwood oil from Santalum album L., which grows in India, Indonesia and other parts of South and South East Asia. This is due to the high levels of santalols (a- and b-) and santalenes that give it the characteristic sandalwood fragrance.

However, due to ecological concerns about the sustainability of Santalum album, attention has turned recently to other species from other parts of the world, although there seems no evidence as yet that the oil from these sources is coming from plantation-grown trees.  As Chrissie Wildwood points out, the plantations are still too young: it will take 30-50 years for the trees to mature sufficiently to produce a high-grade oil for commercial purposes.  It is only experimental at this stage.

Still, in 1997, an Australian company commenced a 6-year research and development project, and the resulting new technology enabled the company to produce commercial yields of high quality oil.  The company entered into a 10-year contract with the Government of Western Australia to supply 1,000 tonnes of wood per year. Unique Western Australian government legislation is administered by the Department of Conservation and Land Management to maintain the supply, harvesting and sustainability of Australian Sandalwood.

Sandalwood was one of Western Australia’s major exports from the mid 1800s.  Commercial production and marketing of the oil started in the 1880s, but the content of santalol was very low. In 1921 systematic production and scientific control of the oil were instituted and the quality of distilled oil improved progressively to the extent that it became recognised as being the equivalent of the well established and better known East Indian Sandalwood oil.

In fact, the highly respected A.R. Penfold, the first to achieve the reduction of piperitone to menthol, was moved to comment: Australian oil has been found to be equally efficacious and in some instances superior to the Indian oil in pharmacology [Australasian J. Pharm. (1937), 18, 154].

The oil from Australian Santalum spicatum, which is closely related to Santalum album, has high levels of anti-microbial and anti-inflammatory properties as well as high levels of fragrance compounds. A study comparing the sesquiterpene constituents of S. album and S. spicatum oils confirm that both contain a-santalene, epi-b-santalene, b-santalene, a-curcumene, and b-curcumene. These constituents play an important role in the fragrance of the oil and provide valuable anti-inflammatory properties. The Australian oil also contains dendrolasin which is a sesquiterpene furan possessing a sweet, lemongrass fragrance.

The anti-microbial effects of Sandalwood are attributed to its farnesol content. Farnesol, which is well known and widely studied, normally constitutes 5-10% of the volatile content of the oil from S. spicatum.

The anti-inflammatory properties attributed to S. spicatum are credited to a-bisabolol, an anti-inflammatory agent found in high proportions in Australian sandalwood.  The oil has normally about 5-10% of a-bisabolol.

Another compound of sandalwood oil for which anti-inflammatory properties have been demonstrated is b-santalene. However, the content of this compound is normally below 1%.

Given the oil’s traditional use, current research is examining other santalenes and sesquiterpenoid alcohols from Australian sandalwood to identify other anti-inflammatory constituents.

Although the ethicality of some of their testing methods has been severely, and correctly, crticized by Chrissie Wildwood and others, there is no doubting the determination of the Australians to prove the efficacy of their product.

Memories of Momordica.
Recently I read somewhere that Momordica charantia L. may assist maintaining a healthy blood sugar level, which rang a bell in the back of my mind. Karela, or balsam pear, is a favourite of the Pakistani community in this country.

An annual climber growing to about two metres, it has deeply lobed leaves, yellow flowers and orange-yellow fruit. Native to southern Asia, it is common throughout the tropical regions of the world and is harvested year round.  It is traditionally taken in Asia, Africa and the Caribbean to treat symptoms of diabetes.

Karela contains a fixed oil, an insulin-like peptide, and several glycoproteins: momorcharins, momorcochin. Momorcharins have abortifacient and antitumour properties (on melanomas and choriocarcinomas), and inhibit protein synthesis.  Similarly, they inhibit the replication of the HIV virus in vitro; their activity on the humoral and cellular immunity is complex: they are allergens, but can inhibit the reactions induced by other allergens [Ng, T.B. et al. (1992). Proteins with Abortifacient, Ribosome-Inactivating, Immunomodulatory, Antitumor and Anti-AIDS Activities from Cucurbitaceae plants. Gen. Pharmac., 23, 575-590].  The peptide is known to lower sugar levels in the blood and urine.

The unripe fruit is mainly used to treat late-onset diabetes.  The ripe fruit is a stomach tonic, and induces menstruation. In Turkey, it is used to treat ulcers and, in the West Indies, the fruit is much used for worms, urinary stones and fever.  The fruit juice is taken as a purgative, and is prescribed for colic. A decoction of the leaves is taken for liver problems and colitis, and it may be applied to skin conditions.  The seed oil is used to help heal wounds.

The seed oil is quite interesting because it is high (56%) in a-eleostearic acid (C18H30O2), the conjugated isomer of linolenic acid and main component of Tung oils, Vernicia fordii (Hemsl.) Airy Shaw and Vernicia montana Lour, which are mainly used in the manufacture of paints and varnishes.

The seeds of a related species, Momordica cochinchinensis (Lour.) Spreng, or bhat karela, are applied as a poultice to relieve abcesses, haemorrhoids and scrofula.  Research indicates that a paste of the seeds may help psoriasis and ringworm. Fascinating!

Paul Kennedy, with whom I have been chewing over chia [see the next item], mentioned the perceived remarkable skin healing and protective properties of pomegranate seed oil (Punica granatum L.) due to its high (80%+) content of punicic acid (C18H30O2) which, Paul tells me, is described as a conjugated linolenic fatty acid (CLNA) and said to be somewhat related to the conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) of breast milk! I don’t know about that, but Momordica cochinchinensis also contains a healthy 50%+ of the same CLNA!  
 
Whilst karela is reported to be relatively safe at low dosage, it should not be used for more than 4 weeks at a time, and definitely not by people prone to low sugar levels, or during pregnancy. 

Karela fruit improves glucose tolerance, and hence shows significant hypoglycaemic properties.  There is, therefore, potential for interaction with oral hypoglycaemic agents [Aslam, M. & Stockley, I.H., Lancet 1979, (No.1), 607].

A number of relatives of the karela are used within the Asian community and by the hakim or vaid for the treatment of diabetes. [The traditional healer is termed hakim if he practises the Unani system or vaid if he practises the Ayurvedic]. Crushed seed kernels of Cucurbita pepo (pumpkin), Cucumis melo (honeydew melon), Cucumis sativus (cucumber) and Citrullus lanatus (watermelon) are all in the herbalists’ armamentarium for the control of diabetes.

The Cucurbitaceae, of which these are all members, is a family of plants with a reputation for complex steroid chemistry; testosterone is but one example of the materials which have been isolated.  There are surely many more medicinal properties, and in particular, hypoglycaemic active plants, which are yet to be discovered. Whilst this should provide benefit, the message of karela concerning inherent dangers from mixed treatments is clear and should be heeded.       
 
Chewing over Chia.
Have you ever come across chia seed oil (Salvia hispanica L.), enquired Paul Kennedy.  It is reported to contain over 60% a-linolenic acid with useful amounts of linoleic acid as well.  Therefore, it could compete with kiwi-fruit seed oil as a moisturising skin oil.

Seed oil of kiwi-fruit (Actinidia deliciosa (A. Chev.) Liang & A.R. Ferg.) contains in excess of 60% a-linolenic acid and about 16% linoleic, but what always surprises me a little is that the leaves contain the monoterpenoid alkaloid, actinidine, which causes excitation in cats. It also occurs in the defensive secretions of certain ants and of rove beetles, so is presumably toxic to animal predators. Valerian roots (Valeriana officinalis L.) contain the same alkaloid. Still, I digress!

I recollect that the generic name ‘chia’ has been applied to several seeds of Salvia spp., but especially S. hispanica (Mexican chia) and S. columbariae Benth. (California chia).  I think that the former was used in a drink and oil paint, and the latter was once made into cake and soup. Apart from that, I know nothing.

Paul tells me that chia is growing in prominence as a health food and nutritional supplement. The seed becomes mucilaginous when moistened/soaked and the special polysaccharides in this mucilage are reported to have various health benefits, e.g., slimming, boosting energy and prolonging endurance, boosting the immune system, lowering blood sugar and helping in diabetes, reducing blood pressure, etc.  It seems that it was favoured by the Aztecs.

Like many new ‘superfoods’, it comes with an impressive list of claims: the seeds are said to be the richest source of omega-3 fatty acids and fibre in nature, to contain more calcium than cow’s milk, more iron than spinach, and useful amounts of copper, zinc, boron (which is used to metabolize calcium) and potassium, but I await the evidence.

Certainly S. hispanica and S. columbariae do contain levels of a-linolenic and linoleic acids in excess of 60% and 16% respectively, but, perhaps surprisingly, so does Clary Sage (Salvia sclarea L.) seed oil!

Bio super glue!
Scientists are on a high over Ethiopian weeds. The vernonia plant has been found to produce an extraordinary oil that could have wide-ranging applications, says Clive Cookson of the Financial Times.  What a coincidence!

Whilst looking at ‘chia’ oils, and oils containing high levels of a-linolenic acid and linoleic acid, I had come across Euphorbia niciciana which contains almost 75% a-linolenic acid and 13% linoleic, but what was far more interesting was another member of the Euphorbiaceae.

Fifteen years ago, the focus of the European Community was on short to medium length chains of saturated fatty acids for industrial uses, especially chemical. Adapted to South Eastern Spain, the seed of Euphorbia lagascae has 50% oil content, of which 60% is vernolic acid (cis-12-13 epoxy oleic acid) which is useable as a stabilizer and a plasticizer.

Vernonia (Vernonia galamensis (Cass.) Less.), however, contains as much as 80%.  It is a naturally epoxidized oil having a lower viscosity than industrially epoxidized soybean and linseed oils, which could potentially be a living source of epoxy compounds that are currently produced entirely from petrochemicals.

With worldwide epoxy sales estimated at $15bn (£8bn) per year in the plastics, paints and adhesive industries, “vernonia has the potential to become the industrial soya bean of the 21st century”, says Paul McClory, one of the founders of Vernique Biotech Limited (VBL).

Between the 1970s and 1990s, attempts were made to grow vernonia in the United States, but it did not thrive. The problem was that V. galamensis needs a pattern of day and night found only within 10 degrees of the equator. Therefore it was decided to grow vernonia in its home soil of Ethiopia. Cultivation started in 2004, producing a small crop of seeds last year. 

VBL, the driving force behind this initiative, has recently signed an agreement with the Ethiopian Government to develop all the commercial applications of the oil.  In exchange, VBL will pay a percentage of its profits to Ethiopia.  Growing vernonia is expected to give long-term, secure employment to hundreds of small Ethiopian farmers and their families.

Contrary to popular opinion, Ethiopia is one of the most fertile countries on earth with water resources so great that all its electricity is generated from hydro power. Ethiopia is mentioned in Genesis as bordering the Garden of Eden, and Moses married an Ethiopian woman. Today Ethiopia is probably the most spiritual land in all Africa, consisting of an almost equal mix of 70 million devout Christians and Moslems.  Ethiopia was converted to Christianity in the 5th century - long before most of Europe - and vernonia was first discovered near the ancient city of Harer, in eastern Ethiopia, which I believe is the fourth holiest city in Islam and mentioned in the Koran.

VBL is working with scientists in Britain to develop the most promising aspects of vernonia oil. For example, scientists at Keele University, working under Professor Jim Howell, are currently researching new medical applications for vernonia, one of which could have major implications in the improvement of animal health, and VBL itself has just been accepted as a participant in an 18 month research project at Aberystwyth University to unearth new sources of botanical wound treatments for horses.

Tony Atkinson, a UK biotechnology entrepreneur, is working on what he sees as an exciting range of pharmaceutical applications. The most immediate one will be for the skin, to speed up wound healing and alleviate psoriasis. The oil’s epoxy groups seem to seal and stitch together broken skin through a cross-linking reaction, in a process similar to the way epoxy glue works.

In the longer term there are plans to develop a drug delivery system based on vernonia oil. There is evidence that it can act as a “slow release” agent for drugs in the body, says Dr. Atkinson, or form nano-scale “vesicles” to carry drugs across the blood-brain barrier, for example in chemotherapy for brain tumours.

No one seems to know why a biological mechanism to make large quantities of epoxide evolved in vernonia but not in other plants. It may protect against disease or dessication. However, had VBL not taken the initiative to cultivate wild vernonia, Ethiopia could have totally lost this species because farmers were eradicating the weed to plant cereals.

Personally I think that “Galamensis” could be a most exciting oil, and Paul McClory has just dropped some off for me to assess.   

Bitter Sweet!
I am indebted to Marlene Plimley, who brought not only the above item to my attention but also the increase in ‘mad honey disease’.  Mad honey disease is among the rarest afflictions in the world. Only 58 cases have been reported worldwide, but eight people were treated in 2005 alone.

According to researchers, who recently reported their findings in the American Journal of Emergency Medicine, mad honey disease has the potential to kill if untreated.  Because of the increasing preference for natural products, they opine that intoxication induced by honey consumption will increase. A mere spoonful of the wrong honey can cause problems.  Mad honey poisoning is most prevalent in honey from the Black Sea region of Turkey.  Affected honey is said to have a very bitter taste.

Surprisingly perhaps, none of this was new to me because I had read about a case several years ago [Yavuz, H. et al. (1991). Honey poisoning in Turkey. Lancet, 337, 789-790]. 

Intoxication occurs following the ingestion of honey elaborated by bees that have gathered nectar from some species of Rhododendron, the low sugar content of which does not prevent the bacterial activity of toxins so that excessive eating of this honey by humans can lower blood pressure, causing dizziness.

The toxicity of these species is due to tetracyclic diterpenes in the nectar, particularly grayanotoxin I or acetylandromedol, which cause symptoms similar to those of aconite poisoning. There is no specific antidote.

The aconite tuber (Aconitum napellus L.) is a particularly toxic drug: the consumption of only 10 grams can kill an adult. At the toxic doses, the victim feels tingling in the lips, the tongue, the throat, then in the face and limbs.  Anguish, dizziness, myasthenia, numbness, diarrhoea, aches and chills are observed, as well as cardiac rhythm alterations. Death occurs by respiratory arrest while the subject remains fully conscious.

These toxic symptoms are due to aconitine, which excites, and then paralyzes the peripheral nerve endings as well as the brain stem.  Aconitine is what induces the respiratory slowing and the extinction of atrial impulses within the atrioventricular (AV) node.  Grayanotoxin I is similar in its action.

Therefore, as a precaution, it might be wise to be wary of monofloral honeys that have been made from the nectar of members of the Ericaceae, especially rhododendrons and azaleas.

Finally......
I’m off to try some “Galamensis” oil on Mung’s poorly foot - he’s ripped a toenail out whilst grappling with young Mick.
 

charles@essentiallyoils.com

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